The Bene Gesserit (from Latin or a Semitic language: see the origin of the name) are a key social, religious and political force in Frank Herbert‘s science fiction universe of Dune. It is described as a secretive sisterhood whose members train their bodies and minds through years of physical and mental conditioning to obtain powers and abilities that can easily be seen as magical to outsiders. Due to their secretive nature and misunderstood abilities, outsiders often call them witches. In Dune, Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is less than trusting of their motives:

“

Bene Gesserit! the Baron thought. The universe would be better rid of them all!

”

Trained at the Mother School on Wallach IX, and later headquartered at a hidden world known as Chapterhouse in the two last books of the original series (Heretics of Dune and Chapterhouse Dune), the Bene Gesserit are loyal only to themselves. However, to obtain their goals and avoid outside interference, they often screen themselves with an illusion of being loyal to other groups or individuals.

Contents [hide] 1 Origin of the name 2 History 2.1 Original Dune series 2.2 New Sisterhood 2.3 Legends of Dune 3 Strategies and goals of the Bene Gesserit 3.1 Breeding program 3.2 Avoiding direct power 3.3 Missionaria Protectiva 4 Training of the Bene Gesserit 4.1 Training from childhood 4.2 Spice agony 5 Powers of the Bene Gesserit 5.1 Other Memory 5.2 The Voice 5.3 Petit perception 5.4 Truthsaying 5.5 Simulflow 5.6 Prana-bindu training and the Weirding Way 5.7 Internal organic-chemical control 5.8 Sexual talents 6 Weaknesses of the Bene Gesserit 6.1 Addiction to melange 6.2 Abomination 6.3 Heavily burdened 7 The litany against fear 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

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[edit] Origin of the name

In the real world, the name “Bene Gesserit” was likely extracted from the legal Latin phrase “quamdiu se bene gesserit”^{[verification needed]} (which means “as long as he/she shall behave himself well”), and treated as a name of a group of people because “bene” also is an alternate spelling of the Hebrew “B’nei” (בני) meaning ‘people of’ or ‘sons of’, which accounts for the other groups in the Dune series whose names also begin with the word “Bene,”, i.e. the Bene Tleilax;^{[citation needed]} the name “Gesserit” sounds close to the Hebrew noun “Gesher” (גשר) meaning ‘bridge’.

“Bene gesserit” by itself in Latin means “(s)he shall have behaved well”. Gesserit is a form of the Latin verb “gerere” (third person singular, in either the future perfect active indicative or the perfect active subjunctive), whose meanings include “to carry”, “to wear”, “to manage”, “to bear (a child)”, “to behave”, or simply “to do”. Thus the translation of “bene gesserit” is open to wide interpretation. Among the possibilities are “it will have done well”, “she will have borne (a child) well”, “he will have behaved well”, et cetera.

In Brian Herbert‘s biography of his father, Brian speculates that the name “Gesserit” is supposed to suggest to the reader the word Jesuit, thus evoking undertones of a religious order. Like the Jesuits they have also been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for the unjustifiable.

William F. Touponce writes:

“Considering Herbert’s early education at the hands of Jesuits, it seems likely that this choice of name for his majordomo [Moneo] accomplishes a deliberate irony. By the way, Bene Gesserit means “that it may be borne or accomplished well,” and is derived from the hortative subjunctive of the Latin verb gero, meaning “to bear or carry away” in its root sense, but also “to conduct oneself in society.”^[1]

[edit] History

For a comprehensive roster, see List of Dune Bene Gesserit

[edit] Original Dune series

It is noted in Frank Herbert’s original Dune that in the chaotic time after the Butlerian Jihad and before the unveiling of the Orange Catholic Bible, the Bene Gesserit “consolidated their hold upon the sorceresses, explored the subtle narcotics, developed prana-bindu training and conceived the Missionaria Protectiva, that black arm of superstition. But it is also the period that saw the composing of the Litany against Fear and the assembly of the Azhar Book, that bibliographic marvel that preserves the great secrets of the most ancient faiths.”^[2]

The Bene Gesserit existed for millennia, appearing as a semi-mystical school that trained women for service to the Empire as Truthsayers or mates. In reality, they were subtly controlling the Empire behind the scenes in order to help humanity become more mature.

In addition to their superior combat skills, the Bene Gesserit possessed precise physiological control that allowed, among countless uses, precise control over conception and embryotic sex determination, ageing and even the ability to render poisons harmless within their bodies. Their power of Voice allowed them to control others by merely modulating their vocal tones. Sisters who survived a ritualized poisoning known as the spice agony achieved increased awareness and abilities through access to Other Memory, and were subsequently known as Reverend Mothers.

The Bene Gesserit developed a large-scale breeding program in order to create a superbeing that they could use in order to gain control more directly. To do this they sent breeding sisters to mate with those whose genes they required and whose bloodlines they had subtly manipulated for generations.

Their super-being (the Kwisatz Haderach) arrived early in the form of Paul Atreides, who was free from their control. In Dune, he took control of the Empire and held a tight monopoly on the spice melange, becoming the Sisterhood’s enemy. His son Leto II, however, had far greater powers and for 3,500 years he dominated the universe and the Bene Gesserit. Their spice supply was very limited and huge restrictions were placed on their actions. Their breeding program was taken away from them as well. Leto II’s intentions though were, in part, to strengthen and mature the Bene Gesserit — a strategy that proved successful.

After Leto’s death, the Bene Gesserit slowly gained back their power. During the Famine Times and the Scattering, many Reverend Mothers were sent out among the scattered humanity. The Bene Gesserit survived for a time with no problems until the scattered ones began to return to the Old Empire. Descendants of Tleilaxu Face Dancers and another matriarchal order called the Honored Matres began to threaten the Bene Gesserit’s power. At this time the head of the Sisterhood, Mother Superior Taraza, made a bold plan to release humanity from the oracular hold of Leto II by destroying the planet Rakis (Dune), the only known source of the spice. The Honored Matres were goaded into destroying Dune and the Bene Gesserit brought a single sandworm to their secret home planet of Chapterhouse to begin a new spice cycle.

The Honored Matres began to destroy all of the planets held by the Bene Gesserit and enslave the populaces of all planets that they controlled. They were being chased by far more powerful forces from the Scattering. It was discovered that the Honored Matres were in reality descendants of Reverend Mothers and Fish Speakers that had fled out in the Scattering, as well as liberated Tleilaxu women whose wombs served as the core of the axolotl tanks. The new Mother Superior Darwi Odrade formed another bold plan; she decided to use a captive Honored Matre turned Reverend Mother to join the two forces under a single leader. At the end of the original series as written by Frank Herbert, a very shaky truce existed as the two groups were newly allied under new Mother Superior/Great Honored Matre Murbella.

[edit] New Sisterhood

In the continuation of the series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, Hunters of Dune, Murbella struggled to bring the opposing factions of her New Sisterhood together (and adopted a new title, Mother Commander). One faction of Bene Gesserit was willing to merge with the Honored Matres to fight the coming Unknown Enemy, another faction believed it to be fundamentally wrong to ally with the Matres, whom they considered their enemies. Sheeana led 150 dissenters to escape Chapterhouse aboard a no-ship that was later named the Ithaca.

Similar factions were created within the Honored Matres. Many refused to acknowledge Murbella as their leader; the largest such rebel group was led by Matre Superior Hellica in the Tleilax system. Of the Honored Matres on Chapterhouse, some agreed with Murbella’s visions and others resisted assimilation. At large meetings on Chapterhouse the Bene Gesserit would stand at one side of the room, and the Honored Matres stood on the other. After a bloody brawl between acolytes in the schoolyard which left several dead, Murbella imposed a strict dress code forcing everyone to wear a simple black singlesuit.

As she amassed weaponry for the coming battle with the Unknown Enemy, Murbella formed an elite force of commando troops to beat down the rebel Honored Matres on other planets who still refused to acknowledge her as leader. These “Valkyries” were trained with the combined battle talents of Bene Gesserit, Honored Matre and even Sword Masters of Ginaz. Eventually, Murbella and her army were able to defeat Hellica on Tleilax, galvanizing many dissenters into finally joining her cause.

[edit] Legends of Dune

In the Legends of Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Anderson it is revealed that the Sorceresses of Rossak, who possessed destructive telekinetic powers existing only in females and had a breeding plan to create more powerful telepaths, were the predecessors of the Bene Gesserit. As a Sorceress was always killed when she unleashed her full power, they sacrificed themselves to destroy some of the Titans and Neo-Cymeks in the Butlerian Jihad. Later, they expanded their genetic program to preserve human bloodlines when mankind was endangered by a widespread plague (the “Demon Scourge,” genetically engineered and unleashed by the thinking machines). Raquella Berto-Anirul became their leader after surviving a poisoning attempt by being the first to internally render the toxin harmless. The ordeal also made Raquella the first to access Other Memory and use the power of Voice; she later established the Bene Gesserit, instituting a similar ritualized poisoning to unlock the same abilities in others.

[edit] Strategies and goals of the Bene Gesserit

[edit] Breeding program

The ultimate goal of the Bene Gesserit Sisterhood, up to the end of the novel Dune, is the creation of the Kwisatz Haderach, a male Bene Gesserit. This is being achieved through a massive human breeding program, which the Sisterhood has conducted for countless generations; using careful manipulations of relationships and people in general, the Bene Gesserit have controlled bloodlines through the ages. The Kwisatz Haderach, with access to both male and female lines in Other Memory, will be an overt figure in the Bene Gesserit’s manipulations, thrust upon the universe as the Messiah (see Missionaria Protectiva below).

In the novel Dune, the Bene Gesserit breeding scheme is, in theory, to have come to full fruition from the union of an Atreides daughter (planned to be born of the Lady Jessica and the Duke Leto Atreides) and the na-Baron Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen (son of Abulurd Harkonnen, brother of the Siridar-Baron Vladimir Harkonnen; Vladimir is himself secretly the natural father of the Lady Jessica). Of course, the ever-so-valuable breeding scheme was disrupted when Jessica chose to conceive an Atreides son rather than the daughter she had been ordered to produce. This son proved to be the Kwisatz Haderach, a generation early.

In Dune Messiah, the Tleilaxu Scytale reveals that the Bene Tleilax created their own Kwisatz Haderachs — in their case, beings of pure evil or pure good, indicating that the term “Kwisatz Haderach” means some sort of creature of essence. Scytale observes that their Kwisatz Haderachs could be destroyed by forcing them to become their opposites. In the novel, Scytale raises the point as part of a conspiracy to destroy Paul Atreides, the Bene Gesserit’s unexpected Kwisatz Haderach. The conspiracy unfolds along the lines of Herbert’s theme throughout the Dune novels that prescience grants control, but that control paradoxically traps the prescient in a foreseen future that they can not change.

In God Emperor of Dune, the God-Emperor Leto II has taken over the Bene Gesserit breeding program for his own purposes (see Golden Path). By Heretics of Dune, the Bene Gesserit have given up the idea of breeding for a messiah, instead breeding for special individuals of great talent and usefulness in order to amplify certain human characteristics and preserve them. In this and the last book of the original series, Chapterhouse Dune, the ‘Latter-day Bene Gesserit’ seem to see themselves as shepherds of humanity, gently nudging humans forward, rather than the comparatively gross manipulations of the early novels.

The behind-the-scenes intrigues of the breeding program are illuminated in the Prelude to Dune trilogy as the program nears fruition. Every generation, a Reverend Mother is chosen to serve as “Kwisatz Mother” and guide the program. At that time, Anirul Sadow-Tonkin is the youngest Kwisatz Mother ever; the Reverend Mothers in Other Memory have revealed everything to her, while keeping the details of the program hidden from most Bene Gesserit. It is Anirul who is able to make the calculations that lead to the birth of Paul Atreides.

The origins of the program are revealed in the Legends of Dune series. The Sorceresses of Rossak had started keeping detailed breeding records circa 400 B.G., trying to improve the potency and prevalence of their telekinetic powers. In 108 B.G., Ticia Cenva led the Sorceresses in the collection of genetic samples of various human bloodlines, as they were in jeopardy from a catastrophic virus genetically engineered and unleashed by the thinking machines. Since the Sorceresses later became the Bene Gesserit (see History above), this process marked the beginning of the wider scope for the Sisterhood’s breeding program that would later target a specific goal: the Kwisatz Haderach.

[edit] Avoiding direct power

The Bene Gesserit have chosen to use indirect methodologies to further their goals, rather than wield overt power themselves. They have noted the Taoist principle that whatever rises must fall; and so rather than taking direct control of the human race, instead manipulate the social and political order with subtlety and insinuation, often using extraordinarily long-term stratagems spanning generations. They avoid becoming or seeming too rich or too powerful or indeed revealing the extent of their powers, so as to avoid being seen as overtly responsible for the rise and fall of governments and empires.

[edit] Missionaria Protectiva

The Bene Gesserit practice “religious engineering” through a faction called the Missionaria Protectiva, which spreads contrived myths, prophecies and superstition (collectively known as Panoplia Prophetica) among the populations of the Empire. A Bene Gesserit may then later take advantage of the prophecies, casting herself as a guide, protector, or some other figure in fulfillment of the prophecy, in order to manipulate the religious subjects for protection or other purposes. These myths also exploit religion as a powerful force in human society; by controlling the particulars of religion, the Bene Gesserit have a manipulative lever on society in general.

In Dune, Jessica and Paul take refuge among the Fremen after the attack on House Atreides. With his mother’s guidance, Paul is able to make use of the planted myths by claiming to be Mahdi, a messianic figure from legendary material planted among the Fremen by the Missionaria Protectiva. That the Mahdi legend has been planted on Dune indicates to Jessica that conditions on Dune are truly awful, since this legend is reserved for only the harshest environments where a Bene Gesserit would need the maximum advantage over surrounding influences. Paul’s meteoric rise to power is greatly facilitated by his association with the Mahdi legend.

The Missionaria is also used in much more ambitious ways. The Bene Gesserit employ it to prepare the entire Empire for its Kwisatz Haderach. Later, there are plans to unite the Old Empire under the Bene Gesserit against the forces of the Scattering. The plan is to use Reverend Mother Sheeana’s ability to control the great sandworms to become a direct religious force.

[edit] Training of the Bene Gesserit

[edit] Training from childhood

The Bene Gesserit begin training acolytes when they are very young, and those of preference would begin training from birth. The younger a child becomes an acolyte, the more likely that child will become a Reverend Mother. The Bene Gesserit do train people at later ages, but only if they are supremely talented (e.g., the House Corrino leader Farad’n) or if they have already received similar training (e.g., the Honored Matre Murbella).

[edit] Spice agony

Main article: Spice agony

The Spice agony is an ordeal in which an acolyte of the Bene Gesserit takes a poisonous Awareness Spectrum Narcotic and, by internally changing the substance and neutralizing its toxicity, awakens her inner self and the selves of all her female ancestors (called Other Memory). In Dune, Lady Jessica notes that the ritual originated with the “discovery of the poison drug on Rossak“; the Sisterhood used some form or descendant of this drug until the discovery of the so-called Water of Life on Arrakis. The Water of Life is produced by drowning a “little maker” (small sandworm) in water, making it give up its bile (which in itself is a concentrated form of melange). In the Fremen version of the rite, after the ordeal the Reverend Mother also provides the changed water for the Sietch Orgy.

An acolyte unable to effect this change dies. Only females had ever survived the agony, but through their breeding program the Bene Gesserit sought the male Kwisatz Haderach who would be able to change an illuminating poison. The Bene Gesserit try over many generations through selective breeding to produce such a being. A Kwisatz Haderach is given abilities different from those of a Reverend Mother. During the Spice agony, there are two areas of the soul that the acolyte may visit — the part that gives, and the part that takes; a Reverend Mother cannot access the memories of her male ancestors, and is terrified by the psychic space within her that the masculine memories inhabit. Until Paul Atreides, all men who had attempted the spice agony had died.

Jessica endured the spice agony while pregnant with her daughter, Alia. This had a profound effect on the unborn Alia, who was consequently born a full Reverend Mother with the complete Other Memory of both the male and female ancestors in her bloodline. The Bene Gesserit refer to children born this way as “Abominations“. Without the benefits of Bene Gesserit mental conditioning, however, this later led to Alia’s downfall, as she was unable to maintain control of the other egos striving for dominance. Interestingly, the personality that eventually took control of Alia was that of the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, Alia’s grandfather, whom she murdered as a child in the events of Dune. Presumably, Alia had been more genetically likely to access male Other Memory than the typical Reverend Mother, as her brother Paul was the Kwizatz Haderach^{[citation needed]}.

The origin of the ritual is explained in the prequel Dune: The Battle of Corrin when Raquella Berto-Anirul is poisoned by Rossak Sorceress Ticia Cenva with the Rossak Drug. She manages to internally convert the poison into a harmless substance and is thus the first to experience the awakening of Other Memory. Raquella later establishes the Bene Gesserit, presumably perfecting the technique and training others to survive the ordeal.

[edit] Powers of the Bene Gesserit

[edit] Other Memory

One of the ‘powers’ of a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother is her Other Memory: the combined ego and memories of all her female ancestors, passed on through genetic memory, and thus, up to the point where each following ancestor was born and the physical contact with the mother broken. The ego/memory combination remains a distinct identity within the Reverend Mother’s mind, and is able to inject itself into her awareness at appropriate or emotional moments, though the Reverend Mother’s ego is always dominant. The first Bene Gesserit to access Other Memory was Raquella Berto-Anirul, the founder of the order, as revealed in Dune: The Battle of Corrin.

A Reverend Mother has access only to her female lineage in Other Memory; her male line is unavailable to her, present as a dark void that terrifies her. Until the time of God Emperor of Dune, the purpose of the Bene Gesserit breeding scheme is to breed a Kwisatz Haderach, a male with Other Memory who can see both lines, male and female. Male memory will be complete until moment of conception, when physical contact with the father, through ejaculation, is lost.

Reverend Mothers may also pass their own ego/memory combination to other Reverend Mothers at will, merely by touching foreheads. When a Reverend Mother dies in the presence of another Reverend Mother, the second will accept the ego/memory of the first to prevent the loss of the dying Reverend Mother’s experience and ancestral memories. Especially when the Mother Superior perishes, it is important to take her ego/memory so that her plans and strategies may continue uninterrupted. This is first explored in Dune, when Jessica accepts the life experience of the dying Fremen Sayyadina Ramallo. In Chapterhouse Dune, Darwi Odrade is Mother Superior, a contentious choice ratified by the fact that she was present at the previous Mother Superior’s death, and has her in Other Memory; she represents the most continuous line of leadership. Under extreme conditions, a large community of Bene Gesserit will practice Extremis Progressiva, a mass sharing of ego/memories with each other to spread all the ego/memories amongst everyone; thus, if one survives, they all survive. In Chapterhouse Dune , the Bene Gesserit school on Lampadas, under attack by the Honoured Matres, undertakes Extremis Progressiva; Lucilla escapes with the “Lampadas Horde”, hoping to return to the Bene Gesserit with them.

[edit] The Voice

Bene Gesserit are trained in the use of their Voice (it is always emphasized as “Voice” in the novels) to compel obedience in listeners on a subconscious level. By controlling the subtleties of her voice, a Bene Gesserit can directly address and thus issue commands to another person’s unconscious mind in a way that the conscious mind is aware of, but is unable to resist. The Voice can be specific to individual listeners, but it is applicable in group speaking as well. In some way, Voice is an extreme version of oratorical ability.

Voice control is not magical or mystical. It is an innate talent, present in greater or lesser amounts in everyone, requiring only training to be made useful. A Bene Gesserit need not be a Reverend Mother to use Voice, and others outside the order may be taught to use it. In Dune, Jessica teaches it to Paul; after the Reverend Mother Mohiam tests Paul, she urges Jessica to give him the ‘deep training’, the deepest secrets of Bene Gesserit in the use of Voice, saying only that “he’ll need it.” The first Bene Gesserit to use Voice was Raquella Berto-Anirul, the founder of the order, as revealed in Dune: The Battle of Corrin.

The Voice is useless against targets who cannot hear the Bene Gesserit (e.g., someone who is deaf or otherwise deliberately inhibiting their ability to hear sounds by other means); both House Harkonnen in Dune and House Corrino in Children of Dune employ deaf people to guard Jessica, knowing that she cannot control them via the Voice. The effectiveness of the Voice is also limited by how well the Bene Gesserit can analyze her target’s personality and vocal patterns to determine what pitch of Voice will be most effective, though this limitation usually negated by the Bene Gesserit’s skills in observing their targets and perceiving their weaknesses.^[3] Also, being a manipulation of the target’s subconscious mind, the Voice is of limited utility against an extremely disciplined mind, such as a Reverend Mother or a strong Mentat; if the target understands what Voice is and how it works, and is aware that it is being used, he may resist it. One trained in the use of the Voice may easily detect its use by others, even subtly. In Dune Messiah, Paul trains some guards to resist Voice so that he may imprison Bene Gesserit. By the time of Children of Dune, Gurney Halleck has also been trained by Jessica to resist the Voice completely.

In Heretics of Dune Reverend Mother Odrade explains to Sheeana that planetary populations exposed to long term Voice control learn ways to adapt to it, and can no longer be manipulated. This is why the Honored Matres have been driven back into the Old Empire; over-controlling, they’ve built up both resistance and rebellion, and are now on the run from their former subjects.

[edit] Petit perception

Bene Gesserit are trained to exercise petit perception at all times, noticing to a terrifying degree minutiae that others miss. When combined with their analytical abilities, Bene Gesserit appear to be witches (hence the nickname for them), capable of divining secrets in persons and circumstances that are invisible to everyone else. Slight differences in air currents or the design of a room will allow a Bene Gesserit to detect hidden portals and spyholes; variations in a person’s voice and tiny reactions allow Bene Gesserit to deeply understand a person’s emotional state, and manipulate it.

[edit] Truthsaying

Bene Gesserit trained as Truthsayers are able to detect whether someone is lying by detecting inflection and change in a subject’s voice, observing and interpreting their body language and analyzing physical signs like pulse and heart rate. Such perception of someone else’s veracity is an ability that all humans have, in principle, but that requires extensive training to develop to the point of usefulness.

The training of the Bene Gesserit is very useful for developing this ability, but is not the only way. It is not a skill: It is the development of a latent talent. One character describes the talent as “whenever I hear someone tell a lie, I want to turn my back on them.”

Truthsayers are used widely in politics and trade; the Padishah Emperors are never without one. Combined with Voice, Truthsaying is also useful for interrogation and torture. Truthsayers have been known to be wrong or deceived, most often because they are facing another Bene Gesserit who has of course been trained to disguise the very signs the Truthsayer is analyzing.

[edit] Simulflow

Bene Gesserit also have the ability to practice simulflow, literally the simultaneous flow of several threads of consciousness at any given time; mental multitasking, as it were. The combination of simulflow with their analytical abilities and Other Memory are responsible for the frightening intelligence of the average Bene Gesserit. This simulflow can also be held with Other Memory; Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade practiced both forms in Heretics of Dune.

[edit] Prana-bindu training and the Weirding Way

The Bene Gesserit develop their physical abilities as well as their mental abilities. A trained Sister has full control over each muscle in her body; this is called prana-bindu training. It allows her to bend the last joint in her little toe while remaining otherwise motionless, bend and contort her body in ways that most would consider impossible, or put a remarkable amount of force behind a physical blow. The mental part of prana-bindu, or prana-nervature (prana stands for breath, bindu stands for musculature) is the precise control of the totality of nerves in the human body. In Dune, Reverend Mother Mohiam tests Paul with a nerve induction device that causes the sensation of intense pain. Paul learns that he is not the only one to have tried it, but is perhaps specially resistant; this conversation points to a widespread use of it as a tool among the Bene Gesserit to measure self control, nerve control, and as Mohiam puts it, crisis and observation.

Unarmed attacks are part of the specialized martial art called the Weirding Way, which incorporates the prana-bindu methods of optimized muscle control, which enable one to deliver powerful blows and to move with extreme precision and speed. The basic principle behind the Weirding Way is that, as Farad’n Corrino says, “My mind affects my reality.” A user of the Weirding Way has to know that the action he or she ‘wants’ to perform has already been performed. For example, to imagine oneself behind an opponent at the current moment in time; when trained well, this knowledge will place you at the spot desired.

[edit] Internal organic-chemical control

Just as the Prana-bindu allows the Bene Gesserit to precisely control each muscle and nerve, they also have complete conscious control over the functions of their internal organs and body chemistry. A Sister can completely control her breathing and heart rate to the degree that she can appear dead to most tests even after intense physical exertion. They can control their need for food and water to the extremes of hunger and thirst, and even commit suicide at will by simply stopping their hearts. The Bene Gesserit are therefore immune to poisons, as they can simply change the chemical makeup of any harmful substance in their body and render it harmless. It is hinted that should a Bene Gesserit wish to, she could slow her aging process dramatically, controlling every aspect of her metabolism. Of course, no Bene Gesserit would ever do this, as it would call too much attention to the Sisterhood and reveal too much of their abilities^[4]. In Children of Dune, Jessica realizes that her daughter Alia has done this, which is her first sign that her daughter is sinking into Abomination.

One of the most significant biological abilities of the Bene Gesserit is their control their own menstrual cycles, and their ability to control (at conception) their child’s gender. Jessica was ordered to bear only daughters to the Atreides, but defied her Bene Gesserit sisters (out of her love for the Duke) and had her son, Paul Atreides. The Bene Gesserit conspired against the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV’s desire to have a male heir and only allowed his Bene Gesserit wife to give him daughters, such as Princess Irulan.

[edit] Sexual talents

The Bene Gesserit are notable for their extensive skill in seduction, sex and sexual imprinting. The most talented and highly-trained are known as Imprinters. Men in a position of power or future power, or those with specific qualities that the order wishes to incorporate into their breeding program, are typical targets of a Bene Gesserit imprinter. Men seduced by an imprinter are permanently affected (imprinted) by the intense sexual experience and are thereafter consciously or subconsciously favorable to the Sisterhood.

In Dune, Lady Fenring is instructed by the Bene Gesserit to seduce Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen in order to “preserve the bloodline” by retrieving his genetic material through conception. She also intends to “plant deep in his deepest self the necessary prana-bindu phrases to bend him,” which she later refers to as the “Hypno-ligation of that Feyd-Rautha’s psyche.” When Paul later fights Feyd to the death, Jessica advises her son to temporarily stun him using the word-sound Uroshnor, typically implanted in a dangerous person who has been prepared by the Bene Gesserit. Paul, however, refuses to use this advantage.

In Heretics of Dune, Reverend Mother and Imprinter Lucilla is charged with the seduction-imprinting of the Duncan Idaho ghola so that the Sisterhood may assert some control over him; he ultimately avoids her. Lucilla also mentions the hundreds of sexual positions and variations she knows. In Heretics, the Honored Matres have themselves refined this ability to such an intense level that the targeted male becomes completely enslaved. The captured Honored Matre Murbella attempts this on Duncan; his own imprinting ability, secretly conditioned into him by his Tleilaxu creators, suddenly manifests itself. Murbella and Duncan basically imprint each other, neither having complete control over the other. In Chapterhouse Dune the order has learned the Honored Matre method from Murbella and use it for their own purposes, specifically to awaken the memories within the Miles Teg ghola.

An imprinter can be successfully resisted if the subject has been psychologically pre-conditioned. When the imprinter attempts to seduce the subject, he will automatically respond to the conditioning and resist, or attempt to slay her. More simply, if an imprinter is recognized they can be simply avoided.

[edit] Weaknesses of the Bene Gesserit

[edit] Addiction to melange

Reverend Mothers are dependent on melange to give them their abilities. Any person who consumes melange regularly becomes addicted to it and requires it for survival; however, one who has gone through the agony has a far greater need. Though the effects of melange are highly favorable, including vastly increased lifespan and mental powers, withdrawal ultimately results in death. Melange is expensive and thus is a continual drain on the Sisterhood’s wealth.

Thus, the most significant threat to the Sisterhood is the potential loss of the supply of melange. For most of the time since its discovery, melange has been limited to one source, the planet Arrakis. And as this source can be controlled, the Bene Gesserit (and the rest of the Known Universe) may also be controlled using their reliance on the spice; this hydraulic despotism is a central issue in the beginning of the series.

[edit] Abomination

Main article: Abomination (Dune)

Other Memory figures prominently in the Dune series for several reasons, one of which is that a human with access to Other Memory who has not developed a sufficiently strong ego will become possessed by a strong ancestral ego. If a Bene Gesserit undergoes the spice agony while pregnant, the fetus will also undergo the spice agony and gain access to Other Memory, becoming “pre-born”. Since the fetus has no ego of its own, it is especially susceptible to being overcome by one of these ego-personalities. This is called “Abomination” by the Bene Gesserit, and abominations are always killed immediately. In Dune, when Jessica undergoes the spice agony while among the Fremen, she is pregnant with Alia. The Bene Gesserit are eventually outraged and horrified by Alia’s existence, but she is out of their control. In Children of Dune, Alia eventually succumbs to the ancestral ego of her grandfather, the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, who wants nothing more than the destruction of the Atreides, and is given another opportunity, from the inside, to realize it. Paul and Chani‘s children, Leto II and Ghanima, are also pre-born, but before they become possessed, they stumble across solutions: Leto, forced to undergo a radical spice agony, constructs an executive of benevolent ancestral egos (such as Paul and Paul’s father Leto I) who protect him; Ghanima, as part of their plan to fake Leto’s death, consciously blocks the memory of Leto and their plan, inadvertently developing a mental discipline capable of protecting her undeveloped ego. She also uses the ego of her mother, Chani, as a ‘door guard’ of her other alter egos, only ‘peeking behind the door’ when she needs advice from her Other Memories.

[edit] Heavily burdened

Bene Gesserits are heavily burdened, and they believe emotions are a weakness. Because of that belief, most of them do not know their true parents; this is done to avoid attachment. Bene Gesserits are not allowed to love; they are expected to have multiple sex partners throughout their lives, but are never to fall in love. Bene Gesserits who fall in love are banished to harsh planets as punishment. Most importantly, Bene Gesserits believe they are responsible for teaching mankind.

[edit] The litany against fear

Main article: Litany against fear

In the Dune novel, the Bene Gesserit used the following chanted words to reduce their fear.

“I must not fear.

Fear is the mind-killer.

Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration.

I will face my fear.

I will permit it to pass over me and through me.

And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path.

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing.

Only I will remain.”

Other productions based on the novel alter the litany. The version from David Lynch‘s 1984 film ends at “over me and through me’”—the last three sentences are removed. The litany is also slightly different in the TV miniseries Dune and Children of Dune (Children of Dune adapts Dune Messiah and Children of Dune into one miniseries).

“I will not fear.

Fear is the mind-killer.

I will face my fear.

I will let it pass through me.”

In fact, many characters throughout the series say the Litany in a slightly personalized form, although the core concepts remain.

[edit] See also

• Dune, the originating novel
• Lady Jessica, a key Sister, mother of Paul Atreides
• Gaius Helen Mohiam, another important Sister; instructor of Jessica (and her mother, according to the Prelude to Dune series)
• List of Dune Bene Gesserit, a comprehensive roster

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Bene Gesserit Sayings

[hide] v • d • e Dune universe
Great Houses	House Atreides • House Corrino • House Harkonnen • House Ordos (non-canon) • House Richese • House Vernius
People	Bene Gesserit • Bene Tleilax • Face Dancers • Fish Speakers • Fremen • Honored Matres • Landsraad • Mentats • Padishah Emperors • Sardaukar • Spacing Guild • Suk School • Sword Masters of Ginaz • Thinking machines • Titans
Key planets	Arrakis • Caladan • Giedi Prime • Ix • Kaitain • Salusa Secundus
Elements/Concepts	Abomination • Butlerian Jihad • CHOAM • Golden Path • Kwisatz Haderach • Languages • Melange • Old Empire • Reverend Mothers • Sandworms • Spice agony • War of Assassins • Water of Life • Dune in popular culture
Technology	Atomics • Axlotl tank • Crysknife • Ghola • Gom jabbar • Heighliner • Holtzman effect • No-ship • Stillsuit

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nootropics, popularly referred to as “smart drugs“, “smart nutrients“, “cognitive enhancers” and “brain enhancers“, are a class of drugs that improve impaired human cognitive abilities (the functions and capacities of the brain).^[1]

The word nootropic was coined in 1964 by the Romanian Dr. Corneliu E. Giurgea, derived from the Greek words noos, or “mind,” and tropein meaning “to bend/turn”. Typically, nootropics are alleged to work by altering the availability of the brain’s supply of neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain’s oxygen supply, or by stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of alleged nootropic substances in most cases has not been conclusively determined. This is complicated by the difficulty of defining and quantifying cognition and intelligence.

Contents [hide] 1 Availability 2 Therapy or enhancement 3 Examples 3.1 Replenishing and increasing neurotransmitters 3.1.1 Cholinergics 3.1.1.1 Piracetam 3.1.1.2 Aniracetam 3.1.1.3 Other cholinergic 3.1.2 Dopaminergics 3.1.3 Serotonergics 3.2 Anti-depression, adaptogenic (antistress), and mood stabilization 3.3 Brain energy and improved oxygen supply 3.4 Mental agility, concentration, stamina, and focus 3.5 Purported memory enhancement and learning improvement 3.6 Nerve growth stimulation and brain cell protection 3.7 Recreational drugs with purported nootropic effects 3.8 Dietary Nootropics 3.9 Other nootropics 4 See also 4.1 Brain and neurology 4.2 Thought and thinking (what nootropics are used for) 4.3 Health 5 References 6 External links

//

[edit] Availability

Nootropic drugs are generally only available by prescription or through personal importation. The other nootropic substances listed below are either nutritional supplements or plant components (herbs, roots, beans, bark, etc.), and are generally available over the counter at health food and grocery stores, and are used as nutritional supplements.

The drugs are used to treat people with cognitive learning difficulties, neural degradation (Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease), and for cases of oxygen deficit to prevent hypoxia. These drugs have a variety of human enhancement applications as well and are marketed heavily on the World Wide Web. Nevertheless, intense marketing may not correlate with efficacy; while scientific studies support some of the claimed benefits, it is worth noting that many of the claims attributed to most nootropics have not been formally tested.

[edit] Therapy or enhancement

Nootropic drugs are primarily for therapeutic use, in the sense that they normalize an inhibited mental performance by various causes. In fact, some nootropic substances are ineffective unless there is a malfunction in the first place^{[citation needed]}; replenishing neurotransmitters for instance, is only positively effective when there is a lack of the neurotransmitters in the first place.

On the other hand, many nootropics may theoretically be used as human enhancement, boosting mental function in otherwise normal healthy people. This is physically problematic, however, e.g. since compensatory mechanisms of the brain prevents long-term enhancements^{[citation needed]}. For instance, a short period of increased concentration and alertness of taking stimulants^{[citation needed]}, e.g. caffeine, is compensated for by a period at least as long with decreased alertness etc. in order to avail for recovery. Furthermore, there is much controversy over such applications. This may contribute to the lacking research on such effects.

Nevertheless, colostrinin may enhance long-term memory retention even in young, already healthy, individuals^[2].

[edit] Examples

The term “drug” here is used as a legal designation, and does not indicate greater efficacy. With nootropics, the effects, effectiveness, and potency differ from substance to substance and from individual to individual. See the substance descriptions below for more detail.

[edit] Replenishing and increasing neurotransmitters

As the brain ages, its ability to produce and maintain youthful levels of neurotransmitters declines.^[3] There are various reasons for such an insufficiency. For instance, there might be a lack of enzymes involved in the neurotransmitter synthesis. Nevertheless, in many cases, providing the brain with ample raw materials necessary to make neurotransmitters can restore them to more youthful levels and thus help maintain cognitive function at vigorous youthful levels.^{[citation needed]} Furthermore, there are declines in immune and endocrine functioning. ^[4] Certain nootropics enhance immune and endocrine functioning.

[edit] Cholinergics

Cholinergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or the components of the nervous system that use acetylcholine. Acetylcholine facilitates memory, concentration, focus, and high-order thought processes (abstract thought, calculation, innovation, etc.).^{[citation needed]} Increasing the availability of this neurotransmitter in the brain may improve these functions and increase the duration in which they may be engaged without slowing down or stopping. Oversupplying the brain with acetylcholine may have the opposite effect, temporarily reducing rather than improving mental performance.^{[citation needed]} Cholinergic nootropics include acetylcholine precursors and cofactors, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors:

[edit] Piracetam

Main article: Piracetam

Piracetam (Nootropil) – Prescription drug (in Europe). The original (first),^[5] and most commonly taken^[6][5] nootropic drug. It is a cholinergic agent, synergistic with DMAE, Centrophenoxine, choline, and Hydergine. Increases brain cell metabolism and energy levels,^[7][5] and speeds up interhemispheric flow of information (left-right brain hemisphere communication).^[8] Increases alertness,^[9] improves concentration, and enhances memory. Protects neurons from hypoxia,^[5] and stimulates growth of acetylcholine receptors. May also cause nerves to regenerate. Piracetam markedly decreases the formation of neuronal lipofuscin.^[10] It improves posture in elderly people.^[11] It is not regulated in the US. It is a pyrrolidone derivative.

[edit] Aniracetam

Main article: Aniracetam

Aniracetam is a pyrrolidone derivative drug, analogous of piracetam, and considered more potent^{[citation needed]}. Like piracetam, aniracetam protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[12] Also like piracetam, aniracetam may enhance memory in aging adults by increasing levels of brain biogenic monoamines, which are beneficial to learning and memory.^[3] Both racetams have possible therapeutic use in treating fetal alcohol syndrome.^[13] Aniracetam increases vigilance^[9]. Aniracetam has shown to positively potentiate AMPA receptors.

[edit] Other cholinergic

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) – Amino acid. Precursor of acetylcholine (donating the acetyl portion to the acetylcholine molecule). It is synergistic with lipoic acid.^[14]
• Choline – precursor to acetylcholine (an essential component of the acetylcholine molecule).
  • Alpha-GPC (L-alpha glycerylphosphorylcholine, Choline alfoscerate) – most effective choline precursor, readily crosses the blood-brain barrier.
  • CDP-Choline (Cytidine Diphosphate Choline) – choline precursor, tends to be less expensive and similar in effect to Alpha GPC.
  • Choline bitartrate – precursor of acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
  • Choline citrate – precursor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
  • Citicoline The choline compounds PC and citicoline are thought to promote synthesis and transmission of neurotransmitters important to memory.^[5]
• DMAE – approved treatment for ADD/ADHD^{[citation needed]}, precursor of acetylcholine, cholinergic agent, removes lipofuscin from the brain, anti-depressant.
• Galantamine – acetylcholinesterase inhibitor made from chemical synthesis or extract from plants such as Red Spider Lily (Lycoris radiata).
• Huperzine A – potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor derived from Chinese club-moss.
• Lecithin – contains phosphatidylcholine, precursor of acetylcholine.
• Other pyrrolidone derivatives:
  • Etiracetam – It increases vigilance.^[9]
  • Nefiracetam – Drug. Analog of piracetam, and facilitates hippocampal neurotransmission.^[15]
  • Oxiracetam – Drug. Analog of piracetam, and 2 to 4 times stronger. Improves memory, concentration, and vigilance. When fed to pregnant rats, the offspring of those rats were more intelligent than the offspring of rats fed a saline solution placebo.
  • Pramiracetam – Drug. Analog of piracetam.
  • In animal studies, nootropics such as piracetam, oxiracetam and aniracetam are known to facilitate the formation of long term memory traces and to restore object recognition in aging rats. ^[16] There is evidence that the beneficial effect of racetams may result from an interaction with the central glutamatergic receptor function. ^[16]
• Vitamin B5 – cofactor in the conversion of choline into acetylcholine, cholinergic agent, increases stamina (including mental stamina).

Excess acetylcholine is considered by many to be potentially harmful; see cholinesterase inhibitor.

[edit] Dopaminergics

This section does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007) Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Dopaminergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter dopamine or the components of the nervous system that use dopamine. Dopamine is produced in the synthesis of all catecholamine neurotransmitters, and is the rate limiting step for this synthesis. Dopaminergic nootropics include dopamine precursors and cofactors, and dopamine reuptake inhibitors:

• Mucuna pruriens – Seed powder contains high concentrations of levodopa (L-dopa), a direct precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
• L-dopa – Prescription drug and dietary supplement. Precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine, anti-depressant.
• Phenylalanine (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) – Essential amino acid. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
• Theanine – Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
• Tyrosine (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) – Amino acid. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
• Vitamin C- improves cardiovascular elasticity and integrity, membrane stabilizer and major anti-oxidant (protects brain cells and prevents brain cell death), cofactor in the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin.
• Vitamin B6 – co-factor used by the body to produce dopamine.
• Yohimbe – Bark. Boosts dopamine levels, though how it does this is not yet understood. Aphrodisiac. Yohimbe poses some health risks through its side-effects: it is a neuro-paralytic which slows down breathing and induces acidosis, some symptoms of which are malaise, nausea, and vomiting. Contraindicated for users of megadoses of acidic vitamins or nutrients.
• Deprenyl – (selelgiline) L-Deprenyl is an irreversible MAO-B inhibitor, an enzyme that breaks down dopamine. Thus, it is used to treat Parkinson’s disease, and to delay the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. It protects against the genotoxin AraC, provides neuroprotection against growth factor withdrawal in PC12 cells, protects against oxidative stress in mesencephalatic neurons, and delays neuronal cell death in the hippocampus after global ischemia. ^[17]
• Tolcapone – Inhibits COMT (an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) and increases performance in tasks depending on working memory in individuals with the val/val and val/met genotype of the val158Met polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, while decreasing it in presence of the met/met version. Tolcapone presents the risk of deadly side effects.

[edit] Serotonergics

This section does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007) Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Serotonergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter serotonin or the components of the nervous system that use serotonin. Serotonergic nootropics include serotonin precursors and cofactors, and serotonin reuptake inhibitors:

• Griffonia simplicifolia a natural source of 5-HTP (an alternative in countries where 5-HTP not legal, freely available.)
• Tryptophan (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) – Essential amino acid. Precursor to serotonin, found in high concentration in bananas and poultry (especially turkey), also in milk, promotes relaxed poise and sound sleep. 5-HTP is a form of Tryptophan.
• 5HT_2A agonists such as LSD and 2C-T-7 have been shown to produce nootropic effects when used at a dose much lower than a hallucinogenic dose. (e.g. 10 μg for LSD and 1 mg 2C-T-7, 1/25 of a normal recreational dose )^{[citation needed]}
• SSRIs – Class of antidepressants that increase serotonin levels in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake. Have also been shown to promote Neurogenesis in the hippocampus.

[edit] Anti-depression, adaptogenic (antistress), and mood stabilization

This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2008) Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Depression and depressed mood negatively affect cognitive performance. Feelings of sadness, guilt, helplessness, hopelessness, anxiety, and fear caused by depression detract from productive thought, while apathy (which is also induced by depression) is the lack of motivation and driving moods (like curiosity, interest, determination, etc.) Other symptoms include disturbed sleep patterns, mental fatigue and loss of energy, trouble concentrating or making decisions, and a generalized slowing and obtunding of cognition, including memory. Obviously, removing these effects improves intelligence and mental performance, and therefore, counteracting and preventing depression are effective nootropic strategies. There is a high correlation between depression and a reduction or depletion of neurotransmitters (dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin) in the brain, therefore it is no surprise that increasing the brain’s supply of neurotransmitters alleviates (or at least reduces the symptoms of) most depressions. Stress is another major factor in neurotransmitter depletion, being both a cause and effect of it (creating a vicious downward spiral), therefore stress management and anti-stress substances are also very useful nootropic strategies.

All of the “nergics” listed above have been found to increase stress tolerance and alleviate depression (by replenishing or increasing the brain’s supply of specific neurotransmitters)^{[citation needed]}, especially when used in precursor/co-factor combinations^{[citation needed]}.

Below are additional nootropics which affect mood and stress:^{[citation needed]}

• Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) – Root. Also known as Indian ginseng. Adaptogen used as a tonic to normalize body processes and reduce stress and anxiety.
• Inositol – Is a B-vitamin like substance with anti-anxiety effects. It is believed to produce its anti-anxiety effects by improving the binding of gabaergics to GABA_A receptors. Inositol is a sugar, and is therefore an alternative energy source for brain and muscle tissues. It produces a sugar high without a sugar low, making it especially suited for sweetening tea (instead of sugar). It is also a membrane stabilizer which can strengthen (and therefore help protect) neurons.
• Kava-kava – Kava-kava is a phytomedicine (plant used as medicine) used to combat anxiety, as evidenced by numerous double-blind studies.^[18]
• Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) – Herb. Anti-depressant.
• Passion Flower is used to treat depression. It is commonly combined with St. John’s Wort and Valerian, which work synergistically to reestablish the patients emotional balance without causing tachyphylaxia, hangovers, or addiction. ^[18]
• Rhodiola Rosea – Herb. Adaptogen; elevates mood, alleviates depression. Promotes mental energy and stamina, reduces fatigue.
• St John’s Wort – Herb. The active components: hypericin and hyperforin, are clinically indicated to be effective in cases of mild to moderate depression, on par with synthetic drugs. However, St John’s Wort is not suitable for the treatment of severe depression or suicidal tendencies. Side effects include gastrointestinal complaints and allergic reactions such as pruritus and phototoxicity. ^[18]
• Ginseng, Siberian (Eleutherococcus senticosus) – Root. Anti-anxiety adaptogen that normalizes physical stress and mental consequences.
• Selegiline (Deprenyl) – Along with Piracetam and Meclofenoxate, Deprenyl decreases the amount of lipofuscin pigment and ceroid pigment accumulations in the brain by improving cellular recycling activities.^[19] Therefore, these nootropics may slow age-related diseases in the brain. Selegiline, an MAO-B inhibitor, is used as an antioxidant for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. ^[20]
• Sutherlandia frutescens – Herb. Adaptogen, blood detoxifier.
• Tea – Herb. Contains theophylline and theanine. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation (relieves stress).
• Theanine – Amino acid. Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
• Vasopressin – Drug. Memory hormone produced by the pituitary gland which improves both memory encoding and recall. Rapidly counters chronic apathy syndrome and drug-induced vasopressin depletion.
• Nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) – Essential nutrient. Mild enhancer of concentration and memory. Vasodilator – Mood stabilizer, with a powerful anti-anxiety effect — perhaps the best and most immediate stress reliever available (note that other forms of vitamin B do not have this effect). Side effects: gastric upset (which is easily prevented and relieved with antacids), reduced blood pressure and flushing of the skin (caused by vasodilation), and itchy sensation in the skin caused by histamine release.
• Vitis vinifera (Grape Seed) Grape seed has antistress (adaptogenic) activity, protects against memory loss induced by scopolamine, is an antioxidant, has nootropic activities, and supports the traditional claims for the use of grape fruits and seeds in stress induced disorders. ^[21]

[edit] Brain energy and improved oxygen supply

This section does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007) Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) – Amino acid. Transports fatty acids through cellular membranes and cytosol into cells’ mitochondria, where the fats undergo oxidation to produce ATP, the universal energy molecule. Synergistic with lipoic acid.
• Chromium- stabilises blood sugar levels promoting concentration.
• Coenzyme q-10 syn. Ubiquinone – increases oxygen transport through the mitochondria of the cells.
• Creatine – increases brain energy levels via ATP production.
• Inositol -
• Lipoic acid – synergistic with Acetyl-L-carnitine.
• Piracetam – improves alertness, blood flow, oxygen supply, and stroke recovery.
• Pyritinol (Enerbol) – Drug. Enhances oxygen and glucose uptake in the brain, and allows glucose to pass more easily through the blood-brain barrier. It is also a powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges hydroxyl radicals created in the very processes it is involved in.
• Vinpocetine – Vinpocetine increases blood circulation and metabolism in the brain. Animal studies have shown that vinpocetine can reduce the loss of neurons due to decreased blood flow. ^[5]

[edit] Mental agility, concentration, stamina, and focus

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• Adrafinil (Olmifon) – Drug.
• Caffeine – improves concentration, idea production, but hinders memory encoding. Also produces the jitters. Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world, and may be susceptible to strong levels of tolerance.
• Coffee – Bean. Contains caffeine; brewed coffee is high in antioxidants.
• Nicergoline – Drug. Nicergoline is an ergoloid mesylate derivative used to treat senile dementia. It has also been found to increase mental agility and enhance clarity and perception. It increases vigilance.^[9] Increases arterial flow and use of oxygen and glucose in the brain.
• Nicotine – stimulus barrier (aids in concentration). Stimulus barrier rebound effect (an unpleasant side effect).
• Cocaine – Drug.
• Methylphenidate (Ritalin) – Drug
• Dextroamphetamine – (Adderall, Dexedrine) – Drug.
• Modafinil – (Provigil) – Drug.
• Piracetam – improves alertness, socialization, and co-operation in the brain impaired from age, dementia, and reduced blood flow.
• Phenibut -
• Theophylline -
• Amphetamine -
• Carphedon (Phenotropil) -

[edit] Purported memory enhancement and learning improvement

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All of the “nergics” listed above are purported to improve memory (encoding and recall), As do all nootropics which improve general brain performance in categories such as the brain energy and oxygen supply, and nerve growth stimulation and protection. Other agents purported to have these specific benefits are mentioned in their own sections.

Other nootropics with specific effects on memory encoding and recall include:

• Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) – Herb. Elevates curiosity, enhances memory and concentration.^[22] Brahmi also protects against amnesia inducing chemicals such as scopolamine or loss of memory due to electro convulsive shocks.^[22] It is a traditional ayurvedic medicine.
• Piracetam – improves memory. Used to treat Alzheimer’s, dementia, dyslexia and Down’s syndrome
• Rosemary – Herb. Rosemary has a very old, albeit unverified, reputation for improving memory.
• Vasopressin – Hormone, prescription drug.
• Dextroamphetamine- Adderall, Dexedrine.^[23]
• Nicotine – Improves working memory and learning^[24]

[edit] Nerve growth stimulation and brain cell protection

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• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) – Amino acid. Inhibits lipofuscin formation.
• Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) – Herb. Improves protein synthesis in brain cell repair and new dendritic growth.
• Selegiline (Deprenyl) – Drug. Brain cell protectant, delays senescence of brain cells, proven to increase maximum life span in laboratory rats.
• Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine) – Drug. Mimics nerve growth factor (NGF), and is a powerful anti-oxidant capable of delaying brain death in cases of heart failure and stroke by several minutes with regular use. It increases vigilance.^[9]
• Idebenone – stimulates nerve growth, and has same effects as Coenzyme q-10.
• Inositol – Membrane stabilizer. Strengthens neurons, making them less susceptible to damage.
• Pyritinol (Enerbol) – Drug. Powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges hydroxyl radicals.
• Rasagiline (Azilect) – Drug. Treats Parkinson’s disease either as monotherapy (by itself) or in addition to levodopa therapy. Promotes increased and sustained levels of dopamine by selectively inhibiting an enzyme, monoamine oxidase-B.
• Vitamin C – Membrane stabilizer, involved in collagen synthesis. Vitamin C is also a co-factor in the brain’s production of dopamine.

[edit] Recreational drugs with purported nootropic effects

See also: Controlled substances act and Misuse of Drugs Act 1971

• Amphetamine-type stimulants (such as Adderall, Dexedrine, Desoxyn, etc.) are Schedule II controlled substances in the United States, and Class B drugs in the United Kingdom, with comparable legal controls in effect in most countries throughout the world. They are prescribed for attention-deficit disorders, narcolepsy, and certain cases of obesity; and are issued to counteract fatigue and to enhance performance for pilots in the armed forces of the United States of America.^[25][26] These also heighten alertness, mental focus, vigilance, stamina, and sex drive. They tend to be habit-forming, and exhibit side effects with prolonged or heavy use. Personal importation of amphetamine-class drugs is prohibited in many countries, and their use for recreation or for performance enhancement without a medical prescription is likewise illegal in most countries.
• Cannabis is reported to heighten the ability of the senses, as well as heighten alpha wave activity in the brain associated with creativity.
• LSD – Schedule I / Class A drug. At higher doses, the impact of the senses on one’s mind are expanded to such an overwhelming degree that what is being sensed seems qualitatively different. Activity in the Raphe Nuclei and Locus Coeruleus increases dramatically following administration of LSD to produce extremely heightened creativity in many users. This effect on the creative process is a phenomenon that may be due to ascending traffic in the reticular activation system, which can result in stimulus overload.^[27] Also produces hallucinogenic and entheogenic effects at doses as low as 30–40 μg (micrograms), with the likelihood of having a bad trip increasing as dose is increased if these effects are undesired. May also cause cognitive shifts, synesthesia, and flashbacks. The drug sometimes spurs long-term or even permanent changes in a user’s personality and life perspective. (For more details, see Albert Hofmann: LSD – My Problem Child.)
• 4-methylaminorex
• Pemoline
• Psilocybin and Psilocin
• MDPV
• Mescaline

[edit] Dietary Nootropics

Some regular food items are rich sources of substances with alleged nootropic benefits:

• Nuts, in particular walnuts, are rich sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a type of omega-3 fatty acid. A mixture of walnuts served with dried fruit pieces is known in some regions as student food (orig. German: Studentenfutter) and is popularly recommended as a snack for students.
• Oily fish, such as salmon or fresh tuna (not tuna canned in oil) are also good sources of omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, whose lack in diet has been associated with increased risk of mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, aggressive behavior, schizophrenia, or hyper-activity in children (see omega-3 fatty acids article)

[edit] Other nootropics

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)

• Adafenoxate – Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats^[28] and possibly the same for humans.
• Butea frondosa – “The plant Butea frondosa has been indicated in the Indian system of medicine as a plant augmenting memory and as a rejuvenator. … B. frondosa possesses anti-stress and weak nootropic activity.”^[29]
• BMY 21502 – Injured animals treated with BMY-21502 at one week post-injury showed significant improvement in post-injury learning ability compared to injured animals treated with vehicle. Paradoxically, in uninjured control animals BMY-21502 treatment appeared to worsen learning scores. The results of this study indicate that BMY-21502 may be useful for attenuating the dysfunction in learning ability that occurs following traumatic brain injury.
• Cabergoline (Dostinex) -
• Celastrus panicaltus – Herb.
• Cerebrolysin – A neuroprotective nootropic agent, might affect Alzheimer’s disease pathology. Currently in clinical trials^{[citation needed]}
• Clausenamide
• Coluracetam – It may also have potential use in prevention and treatment of ischemic retinopathy and retinal and optic nerve injury^{[citation needed]}
• Desmopressin (DDAVP) – Analog of vasopressin
• DHEA – Hormone created by the adrenal glands; Precursor to Estrogen and Testosterone
• Dostinex -
• Fasoracetam -
• Essential Fatty Acids- Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DPA) are the best known. EPA in particular, has an anti-depressant function and is positively indicated in trials with autism and learning difficulties^{[citation needed]}
• Fipexide (Vigilor) – It protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[12]
• Gerovital H3 -
• Ginkgo biloba – Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), a root, is used to treat a variety of problems, including chronic cerebrovascular insufficiency, tinnitus, vertigo and peripheral arterial disease. Patients with dementia treated with ginkgo showed significant improvement of symptoms like memory loss, concentration difficulties, fatigue, anxiety and depressive mood. ^[18] However, because Ginkgo is a vasodilator, it ought not be taken with Aspirin, for doing so could increase the risk of bleeding. ^[30] Ginkgo is widely used in Europe to treat subjective tinnitus, however, there is as yet no hard evidence supporting this assertion. ^[30] Ginkgolides are extracts from the leaves of the tree. They produce a beneficial effect for Alzheimer’s disease, and for amyloid-B, the toxic prion protein, which suggests they could be relevant to treating those diseases. ^[31]
• Gotu Kola – Herb and root.
• Lazabemide is a MAO-B inhibitor and has potent membrane lipid antioxidant activity. The antioxidant effects of lazabemide are attributed to its chemical structure and direct physicochemical interactions with the membrane lipid bilayer. It is a potent antioxidant, even more powerful than selegiline (deprenyl) or vitamin E, and is used to treat Alzheimer’s disease. ^[20]
• Meclofenoxate – Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats^[28] and possibly the same for humans. Like Fipexide, it protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[12] Like many racetams, it may treat fetal alcohol syndrome.^[13]
• Milacemide – Drug.
• Nimodipine -
• Ondansetron -
• Phenytoin (Dilantin) -
• Phosphatidylserine- In animals, PS has been shown to attenuate many neuronal effects of aging, and to restore normal memory on a variety of tasks. ^[5]
• Picamilon or Pikamilone – Compound of Niacin and GABA. It can pass the blood-brain barrier and increase amount of GABA in the brain.^{[citation needed]}
• Pregnenolone – Hormone; Precursor to DHEA;
• Pyroglutamate -
• Royal Jelly – Produced by bees for the Queen. Can cause fatal allergic reactions in rare cases^{[citation needed]}
• Sapunifiram
• Semax – A neuropeptide (stimulator of the nervous system) developed from a short fragment of ACTH, Pro8-Gly9-Pro10 ACTH(4-10). Claims of significant increase in salvation of neurons are made^{[citation needed]}
• Somatotropin -
• Sulbutiamine (Arcalion) – Drug – derivative of thiamine (vitamin B1) that can cross the blood-brain barrier and work as anti-fatigue and cognitive support agent.^{[citation needed]}
• Sunifiram
• Unifiram
• Xanthinol -

[edit] See also

[edit] Brain and neurology

Action potential Aging and memory Brain Central nervous system (CNS) Dendrite Human brain Long-term potentiation Nervous system

Neurite Neuron Neuroplasticity Neuroscience Neurotransmitter Sensory neuroscience Synapse Synaptic plasticity List of nootropics (smart drugs)

[edit] Thought and thinking (what nootropics are used for)

Abstract thinking Attention Attitude Brainstorming Cognition Cognitive science Creative thinking Critical thinking Curiosity Decision Decision making Eidetic memory Emotions and feelings Emotional intelligence Goals and goal setting Idea Imagination Intelligence Introspection

Lateral thinking Learning Memory Memory-prediction framework Mental calculation Mind’s eye Mindset Mood Motivation Perception Personality Picture thinking Problem shaping Problem solving Reason Recollection (recall) Self-reflection Thought Visual thinking

[edit] Health

Anxiety Cognitive psychology Clinical depression Confusion Cosmetic pharmacology Drug Parasympathomimetics Prescription drug Prohibition (drugs) Psychoactive drug (aka psychotropic drug) Psychedelic drug

Human enhancement Ergogenic aid Life extension Neurodegenerative disease Alzheimer’s disease Parkinson’s disease Nutrition Sleep disorders Stress Stress management

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Society for the Advancement of Cosmetic Pharmacotherapy
• Business Week Online – “I Can’t Remember” September 1, 2003
• Slashdot Cognitive Enhancement Drugs
• HedWeb
• List of Nootropic drugs at Erowid.org
• List of Neurobiology Links Relevant to Nootropics

[hide] v • d • e Psychoanaleptics: psychostimulants, agents used for ADHD and nootropics (N06B)
Centrally acting sympathomimetics	Amphetamine – Amphetaminil – Atomoxetine – Dextroamphetamine – Dextromethamphetamine – Fencamfamin – Fenozolone – Fenetylline – Methylphenidate – Mesocarb – Pemoline – Pipradrol – Prolintane
Xanthine derivatives	Caffeine – Propentofylline
Racetams	Aniracetam – Oxiracetam – Piracetam – Pramiracetam
Eugeroics	Adrafinil – Modafinil
Other psychostimulants and nootropics	Acetylcarnitine – Citicoline – Cyprodenate – Idebenone – Deanol – Dimebon – Fipexide – Linopirdine – Meclofenoxate – Nizofenone – Pirisudanol – Pyritinol – Sulbutiamine – Vinpocetine